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In this setting, the definition of an avoidant goal becomes an important component of transformational leadership. The definition of an avoidant goal is a task that will be given up or would be expected to be given up in order to ensure performance beyond expectations. In contrast, an approach goal is one that would be continued in order to ensure performance beyond expectations. Avoidant goals have been examined in past research, and it has been found that avoidant goals negatively influence followers. For example, Minkov and Lachmann (2002) reported that high levels of avoidant goals were associated with employee emotional exhaustion and burn-out.

In addition, transformational leadership has been correlated to avoidant behavior (e.g., Brouwers et al., 2004). In the present study, we conceptualize avoidant behavior as the circumstances in which subordinates are expected to give up their goals.

For the most part, researchers have consistently reported that transformational leadership positively influences subordinates, but some exceptions exist. For instance, despite the common assumption that transformational leadership motivates, several studies have reported that transformational leadership is related to lower motivation (e.g., Kan, 2004; Iyer and Srivastava, 2007). Motivation is linked to approach and avoidance behavior, and it is generally assumed that transformational leadership motivates followers by creating an environment of approach behavior. However, in some situations, the demand on subordinates seems to be to perform avoidance behavior. The subjective demand for either approach or avoidance behavior is dependent on the situation, and therefore, there is no single, pre-programmed framework for understanding the meaning of approach-avoidance behavior. However, past researchers have found that transformational leaders encourage subordinates to approach behavior (e.g., Conger and Kanungo, 1998) and that this type of approach behavior contributes to self-efficacy and positive feelings (Kannan, 2007).

The question of the relationship between transformational leadership and avoidant goals is a new one. Some studies have indicated that avoidant goals in subordinates are related to job insecurity, since high levels of avoidant goals are not likely to be maintained in an environment of uncertainty and insecurity.

We propose that the goals of TLs are initiated by the TLs and are embedded in the organization. This is in contrast to previous studies that have shown that goals of TLs are externally imposed by the TLs (e.g., Shamir et al., 1993; Bass et al., 1996; Alegre and Bass, 2004; Conger and Kanungo, 1998). In the present study, goals are initiated by TLs and embedded in the organization. That is, the TLs' goals are internalized by subordinates. Therefore, the present study focuses on the relational construct of transformational leadership (Higgins, 1997). 827ec27edc